<p>The increasing mass of a star contributes to its explosion leading to release of dangerous nuclear radiation, which has the capacity to ruin the protective ozone layer, writes C Sivaram.<br /><br />Every second, at least one massive star in the universe is exploding, after collapsing catastrophically under its own strong gravitational field. <br /><br />These titanic stellar explosions, called supernovae, constitute one of astronomy’s grandest spectacles in the cosmos. <br /><br />In a few weeks, they emit as much energy as the Sun would radiate in its entire lifetime of ten billion years! <br /><br />One can imagine how huge this is, by considering, that every second, the Sun radiates as much energy, as mankind would consume in several million years. <br /><br />So the amount of energy the Sun will produce in ten billion years is massive. And a supernova releases this amount of energy in a few weeks.<br /><br /> Thus, for several weeks, a supernova could outshine all the other stars in a galaxy put together.<br /><br />Stellar explosions<br /><br />However, since there are close to a hundred billion galaxies in the universe, even though every second a supernova explosion may be occurring somewhere, statistically speaking, on an average, a supernova is expected to occur in a particular galaxy, once or twice every century. <br /><br />In our galaxy, for instance, two spectacular supernovae occurred – one in 1572 (witnessed by Tycho Brahe) and one in 1604.<br /><br /> Ever since, there has been a possible supernova viewed by astronomer John Flamsteed in the 18th century, now seen as the bright nebula, Cassiopeia A, believed to be the remnant of that explosion. <br /><br />Earlier, the Chinese witnessed the 105u AD supernova (now hosting the Crab pulsar). In 1006 AD, there was a very bright supernova in our galaxy, which became as luminous as a quarter moon.</p>.<p>In February, 1987, a massive star exploded in our neighbouring satellite galaxy, the Large Magellanic cloud (LMC). <br /><br />On January 21 this year, there was a supernova eruption in the galaxy M82, just 11 million light years away. <br /><br />There was a report of a supernova that exploded in 2010, which appeared 30 times brighter than normal. </p>.<p>This has now been attributed to the light from the distant supernova being magnified by the gravitation lens effect caused by a massive galaxy lying between the source and our galaxy.<br /><br />There are two main types of supernovae.<br /><br /> The collapse of the massive star in the LMC in 1987 caused what is now dubbed as Type II supernova.<br /><br /> The 1054 AD Chinese supernova was a Type II supernova. <br /><br />The supernovae seen in our galaxy in 1006, 1572 and 1604, as well as the one witnessed this year in the galaxy M82, belong to Type Ia. <br /><br />This kind of supernova occurs when stellar material (for example, a companion star) piles onto a white dwarf, pushing it over the Chandrasekhar limit.<br /><br />Most stars, including the Sun, end up as white dwarfs after they exhaust nuclear fuel in their cores.<br /><br /> In these lower mass stars, the core is predominantly carbon and oxygen (the stars are not massive enough to trigger thermonuclear reactions that produce heavier elements).<br /><br />With no further nuclear reactions taking place, the core collapses and forms a dense stable remnant called a white dwarf, which would cool over several billion years. <br /><br />However, if a white dwarf becomes more massive than about one-and-a-half times the solar mass, its gravity would make it collapse, heating it to a billion degrees. <br /><br />At these temperatures, the entire star would detonate as a gigantic nuclear bomb and would be blown to smithereens. The nuclear reactions would end up producing mainly Iron.<br /><br />Ticking time bomb<br /><br />A white dwarf in a binary system could cause matter to accumulate on its surface continuously, and if pushed over the limiting mass, would explode as described above. </p>.<p><br />So, in this sense, it is a gravitational time bomb. Is there a time bomb like that in our neighbourhood? <br /><br />Apparently, there is a binary star system called IK Pegasi, which consists of a white dwarf (close to the Chandrasekhar limit) with a companion star, which is separated from it by one-third the distance between the Earth and the Sun. <br /><br />So, on a short-time scale, astronomically speaking, the white dwarf could explode. This system is only about 150 light years away.<br /><br />The gamma rays from an explosion at this distance could end up destroying much of our ozone layer with consequent damage to the biosphere. <br /><br />The nearest candidate for a Type II supernova is the giant star Betelgeuse, hardly 400 light years away. <br /><br />This star is now observed to be shrinking rapidly and could explode in a few 1000 years (or less), again, generating harmful radiation, which could deplete the ionosphere and produce more nitrous oxides in the atmosphere. <br /><br />A supernova blast at a point 100 light years away could destroy perhaps one third of the planet’s ozone layer. IK Pegasi is dangerously close to this. <br /><br />It has been estimated that in the past two billion years, there could have been a few supernovae within 20 light years of the earth and they could have destroyed much of the ozone and caused much biological damage. <br /><br />The abundance of the Iron-60 layer found in ocean sediments is proof of the existence of a supernova about two million years ago.<br /><br />Far more dangerous than supernovae, are gamma ray bursts, which release in ten seconds, the energy equal to what the Sun emits in its ten billion years of lifetime. <br /><br />Several such events occur everyday, but are mostly very far away. Two neutron stars merging could lead to a gamma ray burst, which even at a distance of 2000 light years can be lethal enough to destroy all life on Earth. <br /><br />Indeed, the short period binary pulsar discovered a few years ago, is just that distance from us, and could merge in less than 1,00,000 years.<br /><br /> Another deadly gravitational time bomb in our vicinity. <br /><br />There may be even undetected neutron star binaries nearby. At least, one of the earlier mass extinctions on earth (perhaps the one in the Devonian period) is attributed to either a supernova or a gamma ray burst. <br /><br />Life in other worlds, present in locations or neighbourhoods like the galactic centre or closer to denser stellar habitats could well have been obliterated by these gigantic celestial time bombs.</p>
<p>The increasing mass of a star contributes to its explosion leading to release of dangerous nuclear radiation, which has the capacity to ruin the protective ozone layer, writes C Sivaram.<br /><br />Every second, at least one massive star in the universe is exploding, after collapsing catastrophically under its own strong gravitational field. <br /><br />These titanic stellar explosions, called supernovae, constitute one of astronomy’s grandest spectacles in the cosmos. <br /><br />In a few weeks, they emit as much energy as the Sun would radiate in its entire lifetime of ten billion years! <br /><br />One can imagine how huge this is, by considering, that every second, the Sun radiates as much energy, as mankind would consume in several million years. <br /><br />So the amount of energy the Sun will produce in ten billion years is massive. And a supernova releases this amount of energy in a few weeks.<br /><br /> Thus, for several weeks, a supernova could outshine all the other stars in a galaxy put together.<br /><br />Stellar explosions<br /><br />However, since there are close to a hundred billion galaxies in the universe, even though every second a supernova explosion may be occurring somewhere, statistically speaking, on an average, a supernova is expected to occur in a particular galaxy, once or twice every century. <br /><br />In our galaxy, for instance, two spectacular supernovae occurred – one in 1572 (witnessed by Tycho Brahe) and one in 1604.<br /><br /> Ever since, there has been a possible supernova viewed by astronomer John Flamsteed in the 18th century, now seen as the bright nebula, Cassiopeia A, believed to be the remnant of that explosion. <br /><br />Earlier, the Chinese witnessed the 105u AD supernova (now hosting the Crab pulsar). In 1006 AD, there was a very bright supernova in our galaxy, which became as luminous as a quarter moon.</p>.<p>In February, 1987, a massive star exploded in our neighbouring satellite galaxy, the Large Magellanic cloud (LMC). <br /><br />On January 21 this year, there was a supernova eruption in the galaxy M82, just 11 million light years away. <br /><br />There was a report of a supernova that exploded in 2010, which appeared 30 times brighter than normal. </p>.<p>This has now been attributed to the light from the distant supernova being magnified by the gravitation lens effect caused by a massive galaxy lying between the source and our galaxy.<br /><br />There are two main types of supernovae.<br /><br /> The collapse of the massive star in the LMC in 1987 caused what is now dubbed as Type II supernova.<br /><br /> The 1054 AD Chinese supernova was a Type II supernova. <br /><br />The supernovae seen in our galaxy in 1006, 1572 and 1604, as well as the one witnessed this year in the galaxy M82, belong to Type Ia. <br /><br />This kind of supernova occurs when stellar material (for example, a companion star) piles onto a white dwarf, pushing it over the Chandrasekhar limit.<br /><br />Most stars, including the Sun, end up as white dwarfs after they exhaust nuclear fuel in their cores.<br /><br /> In these lower mass stars, the core is predominantly carbon and oxygen (the stars are not massive enough to trigger thermonuclear reactions that produce heavier elements).<br /><br />With no further nuclear reactions taking place, the core collapses and forms a dense stable remnant called a white dwarf, which would cool over several billion years. <br /><br />However, if a white dwarf becomes more massive than about one-and-a-half times the solar mass, its gravity would make it collapse, heating it to a billion degrees. <br /><br />At these temperatures, the entire star would detonate as a gigantic nuclear bomb and would be blown to smithereens. The nuclear reactions would end up producing mainly Iron.<br /><br />Ticking time bomb<br /><br />A white dwarf in a binary system could cause matter to accumulate on its surface continuously, and if pushed over the limiting mass, would explode as described above. </p>.<p><br />So, in this sense, it is a gravitational time bomb. Is there a time bomb like that in our neighbourhood? <br /><br />Apparently, there is a binary star system called IK Pegasi, which consists of a white dwarf (close to the Chandrasekhar limit) with a companion star, which is separated from it by one-third the distance between the Earth and the Sun. <br /><br />So, on a short-time scale, astronomically speaking, the white dwarf could explode. This system is only about 150 light years away.<br /><br />The gamma rays from an explosion at this distance could end up destroying much of our ozone layer with consequent damage to the biosphere. <br /><br />The nearest candidate for a Type II supernova is the giant star Betelgeuse, hardly 400 light years away. <br /><br />This star is now observed to be shrinking rapidly and could explode in a few 1000 years (or less), again, generating harmful radiation, which could deplete the ionosphere and produce more nitrous oxides in the atmosphere. <br /><br />A supernova blast at a point 100 light years away could destroy perhaps one third of the planet’s ozone layer. IK Pegasi is dangerously close to this. <br /><br />It has been estimated that in the past two billion years, there could have been a few supernovae within 20 light years of the earth and they could have destroyed much of the ozone and caused much biological damage. <br /><br />The abundance of the Iron-60 layer found in ocean sediments is proof of the existence of a supernova about two million years ago.<br /><br />Far more dangerous than supernovae, are gamma ray bursts, which release in ten seconds, the energy equal to what the Sun emits in its ten billion years of lifetime. <br /><br />Several such events occur everyday, but are mostly very far away. Two neutron stars merging could lead to a gamma ray burst, which even at a distance of 2000 light years can be lethal enough to destroy all life on Earth. <br /><br />Indeed, the short period binary pulsar discovered a few years ago, is just that distance from us, and could merge in less than 1,00,000 years.<br /><br /> Another deadly gravitational time bomb in our vicinity. <br /><br />There may be even undetected neutron star binaries nearby. At least, one of the earlier mass extinctions on earth (perhaps the one in the Devonian period) is attributed to either a supernova or a gamma ray burst. <br /><br />Life in other worlds, present in locations or neighbourhoods like the galactic centre or closer to denser stellar habitats could well have been obliterated by these gigantic celestial time bombs.</p>