Yama’s journey from Vedic king to cosmic accountant

Yama began as the first mortal to die, and became the eternal accountant of karma

Yama is the Hindu god of death, accountability, and the afterlife. Often ignored, his history is long and complex, reaching back to Vedic, Indo-Iranian, and Indo-European mythological traditions.

The Sanskrit word yama means 'twin', which alludes to his earliest mythic origins. Indo-European creation myths tell a story of twin brothers. One brother is Man, called Manu in Indian tradition, and the other is his twin, called Yama. Manu sacrifices his twin, and from Yama's body, the world and living beings are created. Because of this myth, Yama is connected with death from the very beginning. He is related to similar figures in other cultures, such as Yima in Iranian tradition, and Ymir in Norse mythology. These connections help scholars to understand Yama's early role and meaning.

In Vedic literature, Yama is a puzzling figure. He does not appear often in the oldest parts of the Rigveda, and is never directly called a god. Instead, he is usually described as a king. His parents are the divine figures Vivasvat and Saranyu, which suggests a divine nature, yet Yama is not immortal. According to Vedic belief, Yama was the first mortal to die. By dying first, he discovered the path to the otherworld and became the ruler of the realm of ancestors. Consequently, all subsequent mortals follow the path that Yama once travelled. By contrast, his twin, Manu marries and produces children, and is the father of all living beings. Manu was the first to procreate, and Yama was the first to die.

Yama's realm in Vedic texts is usually described as a pleasant, heavenly world where virtuous people go after death. This realm is often located in heaven. At the same time, there are also darker places associated with punishment, and these, too, are sometimes linked with Yama. This appears in later texts. The path to Yama's world is guarded by two four-eyed dogs, an ancient Indo-European motif. Yama is also assisted by messengers such as an owl and a pigeon, and sometimes by the figure of Death itself, called Mrtyu, who is occasionally identified with Yama.

One of the most complex Vedic hymns involving Yama tells the story of his twin sister, Yami. She urges Yama to unite with her to continue their lineage, but Yama refuses. This hymn is obscure, and has led to many interpretations. It also creates confusion about Yama's origin, because in this hymn, his parents are described differently. This has raised the question of whether there were originally two different figures named Yama in Vedic tradition. Does it mean Yama shunned the incest while Manu submitted to it? These are complex stories, and one can interpret them in different ways.

In the great epics, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, Yama's role becomes clearer. He is now firmly established as Yama Vaivasvata, the son of Vivasvat. The twin sister, Yami, disappears from these texts. Yama increasingly takes on frightening features and becomes closely associated with Death, Time, and cosmic destruction. He is also described as the ruler of two afterworlds: a heavenly realm for the virtuous and hell for sinners. This reflects the growing importance of karma and rebirth in Indian religious thought.

In the Mahabharata, Yama becomes an accountant of human actions, keeping track of the debts people owe to the world. He does not differentiate between people based on gender, social status, or age. All he cares about is their karmic account book. This makes him dispassionate. Because of this role, he is often called Dharma or Dharma-raja, the king who is detached and fair. He is Yudhishtira’s father. He is linked with dogs, too impure to enter heaven, the land of immortals.

One famous story shows another side of Yama's character: the tale of Savitri and Satyavan, where Savitri's devotion and intelligence persuade Yama to restore her husband's life. He doesn't love her or hate her, but by her ‘good karma’, he is forced to relook at the account book.

In the Puranas, Yama's position changes again. He remains an accountant of the dead, but his authority can be overridden by powerful gods like Vishnu and Shiva. Devotion to these two gods helps devotees bypass the wheel of samsara. Their debts are repaid, and they find a home in the heaven of Vishnu and Shiva. This is moksha, liberation from worldly woes.

In contemporary Hinduism, Yama is not among the greatest gods, but he is still widely respected and feared. He determines death, rebirth, lifespan, and even the caste of the next birth. He is worshipped in temples, local shrines, festivals, and folk traditions. In Bengal and other regions, rituals are performed to please Yama and protect families from suffering after death.

Yama continues to live in art and iconography. He is shown as a fierce figure holding a noose and staff, often riding a black buffalo. Some argue that the blackness of Yama’s buffalo contrasts with the whiteness of Vishnu’s cow and Shiva’s bull. Buffaloes are sacrificed in rituals to Durga to mark death and regeneration, just as black sesame seeds are used in rituals related to death and white sesame seeds are used in rituals related to life. We can read ancient racism into this or just metaphors of the primal fear of darkness and the security we feel when we see light. Or the buffalo embodies the debt we all owe the world. Unless we repay the debt, there is no liberation.

Devdutt Pattanaik is the author of more than 50 books on mythology. 

Disclaimer: The views expressed above are the author's own. They do not necessarily reflect the views of DH.