The crucible steel legacy of Channarayanadurga

Shiva Kumar M explores the historical significance of a village in Tumakuru that once manufactured steel for weapons.

On December 14 last year, as part of my research, “Retracing Buchanan’s journey”, I visited Channarayanadurga, a serene village nestled at the foothills of the hill fort bearing the same name in Koratagere taluk, Tumakuru district. This historically significant site, a garrison fort during Tipu Sultan’s reign, still holds remnants of an era when crucible steel smelting thrived here.

The origins of Channarayanadurga trace back to the fort built here by the Madhugiri Palegars. It was later acquired by the Mysore kings and subsequently annexed by Hyder Ali and his son Tipu Sultan. Tipu strengthened the fort, adding robust ramparts that still stand as a testament to its military significance.

‘Kittada kallu’ at a site in Maranayakanahalli.

Interestingly, this region was one of the hubs for crucible steel manufacturing during Tipu’s period, a process that intrigued me during my visit. Despite the absence of local iron ore deposits — the nearest being Chikkanayakanahalli and Kudure Kanive of Chikkabyaladakere, around 100 km from Channarayanadurga  — this area hosted flourishing iron smelting operations. 

How was this possible? Two potential reasons emerge: Firstly, as a garrison fort under Tipu Sultan, Channarayanadurga likely served as a centre for producing steel for weapons and tools. This made it a strategic choice. Secondly, the dense vegetation provided an ample supply of wood for making charcoal. 

In history

The historical significance of this site is reinforced by the observations of Scottish surveyor Francis Buchanan, who visited the area on August 13, 1800. Buchanan documented iron smelting practices in Channarayanadurga, Madhugiri, Hagalavadi, and Devarayanadurga. His detailed accounts include descriptions of the crucible steel-making process, where iron wedges, plant materials like Cassia auriculata leaves and water were combined in unbaked clay crucibles. These crucibles, once dried and placed in a furnace, produced high-quality steel used for tools, sword blades and even the strings of musical instruments.

A crucible discovered at the site historically used for steelmaking.

During my visit, I explored the local area and spoke with villagers about the historical iron smelting. The term “kittada kallu”, used by locals, led me to nearby villages like Gowjagal, Negalal, and Maranayakanahalli. Kittada kallu is a local Kannada term for the iron slag remains from an iron smelting furnace.

At Maranayakanahalli, a shepherd guided me to a site where remnants of the smelting operations still exist — debris heaps containing crucibles, tuyeres (nozzles through which air is forced into a smelter), and slag. These findings corroborate Buchanan’s documentation and confirm the area’s role in the crucible steel-making tradition.

Channarayanadurga Fort surrounded by a landscape of deciduous shrub forests.

Channarayanadurga stands as a fascinating chapter in India’s industrial history. Its legacy of producing high-quality steel for armoury and agriculture remains a poignant reminder of the region’s ingenuity and resourcefulness. Preserving and exploring such sites will ensure that this small but significant piece of history continues to inspire generations.