Gender justice beyond India’s north-south divide

Some northern states break gender development patterns, while new challenges emerge in the South

India’s performance in SDG 5 (Gender Equality and Women Empowerment) remains a significant challenge, as highlighted in NITI Aayog’s 2023-24 report, where it is the only SDG India is an aspirant. In as many as 13 SDGs, it is a ‘forerunner’. This reality is further underscored by the World Economic Forum’s 2025 Gender Gap Report, which ranked India 131 out of 148 countries, behind several South Asian nations such as Bangladesh, Bhutan, and Nepal. Key areas of concern include sex ratio at birth, spousal violence, land ownership by women, wage disparity, workplace representation, and women’s autonomy. Continued commitment from all stakeholders is crucial to address these disparities.

The north-south divide in gender development is a long-standing narrative in India, with southern states such as Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and Karnataka generally excelling in education, health, work participation, and women’s leadership. However, data from the recent Women and Men in India 2024 report reveals a more nuanced picture. Some northern states are showing steady progress, while certain southern states are encountering new challenges.

While Kerala reports the highest female literacy rate at 95.2 per cent, followed by Tamil Nadu at 80.1per cent, Bihar and Rajasthan lag at 63.8per cent and 65.3 per cent, respectively. Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand, however, demonstrate female literacy rates exceeding 80 per cent, comparable to those in the South. Jharkhand has also shown a marked improvement through initiatives such as girls’ scholarships and school enrollment campaigns. 

Interestingly, the pace of improvement in these smaller northern states is sometimes faster than in the larger southern states, partly due to their size allowing for broader coverage of reforms. At the same time, some southern states are facing fresh challenges, prompting questions about whether these states’ historic advantage in gender development will hold in the coming years.

While female labour force participation lags behind male participation in India, some states are resisting this trend. Himachal Pradesh leads with 56.2 per cent, followed by Chhattisgarh (46.1 per cent), and Madhya Pradesh (39.4 per cent). Tamil Nadu maintains a relatively strong rate of 35.2 per cent and Karnataka stands at 30.5 per cent. However, experts caution that the quality of work – safety, fairness, and adequate pay – is as crucial as the quantity. Andhra Pradesh, previously a leader in rural female employment, has experienced a decline due to disappearing rural jobs and insufficient childcare and training, pushing women out of the workforce.

The Periodic Labour Force Survey 2023-24 (PLFS) indicates a national increase in rural women’s self-employment, potentially due to improved accounting of unpaid agricultural work, the effect of post-pandemic reverse migration, the expansion of MNREGS, etc. However, the overall persistent decline in female work participation rates warrants further regional analysis.

Health outcomes sharply highlight the north–south divide in India. States in the south clock high rates of institutional births, with Kerala and Tamil Nadu exceeding 98 per cent, while the northern states lag (Bihar at 76.2 per cent, Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand at around 83 per cent). This divide is even more pronounced in maternal mortality ratios (MMR). Kerala has the lowest MMR at 19 deaths per 100,000 live births, followed by Tamil Nadu at 54, whereas Uttar Pradesh is at a high 167, and Bihar and Madhya Pradesh are in the 118-173 range.

These preventable deaths are attributable to weak health systems, inadequate care, and insufficient support for women during pregnancy and childbirth, not solely medical issues. Health systems in the southern states are commendable for their focus on universal health coverage through initiatives such as door-to-door delivery, mobile clinics, robust palliative care supported by volunteers, dedicated health workers, continuous community engagement, and an emphasis on preventive care.

Evenly underrepresented in governance

Women’s representation in the state legislatures varies considerably, with neither the North nor the South consistently leading. While some of the southern states like Tamil Nadu (13 per cent), Andhra Pradesh (13 per cent), Karnataka, and Kerala (12 per cent) have moderate representation, Telangana lags at 5 per cent. In the north, Chhattisgarh (21 per cent and Uttar Pradesh (15 per cent) outperform many states, as do West Bengal (14 per cent) and Delhi (11 per cent). In contrast, Rajasthan (3 per cent), Punjab (11 per cent), Himachal Pradesh (1 per cent), and Jammu & Kashmir (2 per cent) show significantly lower representation.

Despite India’s history of prominent women leaders, most assemblies remain below the 33 per cent quota seen in local governance, a situation potentially subject to change with the implementation of the Women’s Reservation Bill. The limited representation of women in legislatures, particularly in the northern states showing progress and the southern States resisting change, is largely due to political parties’ reluctance to field women candidates, even in winnable constituencies. Without a firm commitment from these parties to increase women’s representation, significant progress is unlikely. Therefore, reserving seats for women in parliament and legislatures would provide a crucial impetus.

Although South India excels in many gender-related areas, progress in states like Himachal Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, and Uttarakhand demonstrates that the north is catching up. Meanwhile, some southern states need to refocus on issues like urban gender gaps and workforce challenges. India’s gender landscape is evolving beyond a simple north-south dichotomy. Progress hinges on local leadership, cultural shifts, and sustained commitment. A comprehensive perspective is crucial for effective action. Further analysis is needed to determine if higher percentage gains in certain states, particularly in health, political participation, and female work participation, have led to greater inclusion of historically excluded populations. It’s also important to examine whether relative declines in these areas in the south are context-specific and regional.

Additionally, we should investigate if the northern states’ policies recognising women’s participation have progressed faster due to a larger percentage of previously excluded populations. Southern states outperform the national average in economic indicators such as State Domestic Product, but this success doesn’t translate into greater progress in women’s participation, warranting further investigation. 

(Jyoti is an associate fellow, National Council of Applied Economic Research, Delhi; Manimekalai is Director, Centre for Women’s Development Studies, Delhi)