<p>Teachers, on a daily basis, are concerned whether their teaching will lead to student-learning. And, over centuries, psychologists have attempted to unravel the mysteries of human learning. <br /><br />Notably, in the last two decades, advances in neuroscience have thrown more light on how people learn. All this is good news for teachers who can apply the fruits of the science of learning for effective classroom teaching in order to bring about a permanent change in knowledge and behaviour of their pupils, viz., learning.<br /><br />Around the beginning of this millennium, the National Research Council (NRC), an American nonprofit, put forth three basic principles for learning, which, in terms of teaching would mean<br /><br />To teach new material, teachers must activate prior knowledge of the students. It is important for teachers to make sure that the students build error-free concepts from their base knowledge, and thereby have a clear understanding of the learnt material. Anything short of this will result in students learning for the test rather than for comprehension.<br /><br />That teachers should not only develop robust factual knowledge in students, but also enable them to understand the facts within a broader conceptual framework, so that the latter can organise knowledge. When students are required to recall or apply facts, it is organised knowledge that helps them to do so easily.<br /><br /> Teachers ought to teach metacognitive skills to students. Students who develop abilities of metacognition become capable of setting goals for themselves and can monitor their own learning.<br /><br />In 2010, Susan A Ambrose, Michael W Bridges, Michele DiPietro, Marsha C Lovett and Marie K Norman proposed seven research-based principles for smart teaching, especially at the college level, on the basis of the science of learning. Similar to the NRC, they also wrote about the importance of prior knowledge, organised knowledge, mastery of facts for application, goals, and metacognition. In addition, they described factors such as student-motivation, targeted teacher-feedback, and class-climate, to foster learning.<br /><br />Four years later, Victor A Benassi, Catherine E Overson, and Christopher M Hakala drew out similar principles of learning. One principle that stands out when compared with the other aforementioned models is the inclusion of the concept of expertise reversal effect. A specific teaching method which will help a student with “low knowledge” will not be effective to the “more knowledgeable learner” and will likely bring negative consequences. This effect, however, can be overcome by differentiating instruction.<br /><br />After a complex process of identifying and translating principles of learning by a panel of experts, the American Psychological Association, in September 2015 presented 20 principles that pre K-12 teachers could use in teaching for effective learning. The first eight principles centre on the topics of cognition and learning, the next four principles are clustered below motivation, followed by three principles on social contexts which influence learning, two principles that focus on classroom management, and the last three which address assessment.<br /><br />At the outset, teachers need to know their learners, their families and their cultural background. This knowledge will immensely help teachers in creating culturally responsive lessons using culturally appropriate resources. Including the community in the curriculum increases the feeling of belonging in the class for the student. The classroom culture with a safe psychological climate in the class nurtures a community of learners. Principle 13 states, “Learning is situated within multiple social contexts.” Allowing healthy student-student and student-teacher relationships aids the socio-emotional development of children.<br /><br />Principle 15 addresses the emotional development and wellbeing of students as key to learning. Teachers are urged to teach students to express their feelings with appropriate vocabulary. If students are stressed, the teacher must step in to teach the child to relax with focused breathing. Fostering empathy and a sense of mutual understanding in students goes a long way in ensuring effective <br />learning. <br /><br />Enhancing the process<br /><br />Establishing clear behavioural expectations with rules, procedures, and routines, form effective classroom management strategies (Principle 16). Principle 17 discusses: “(a) setting and communicating high expectations, (b) consistently nurturing positive relationships, and (c) providing a high level of student support.” Teaching students to be intrinsically motivated and to focus on mastery rather than performance goals, and to set “short-term, specific, and moderately challenging goals” enhance student-motivation towards learning (Principles 9-12).<br /><br />Once the social, emotional, and motivational contexts as well as a managed classroom are in place, a conducive environment for learning will prevail. All students hold certain beliefs about their intellectual capabilities. Sometimes, learners may have misconceptions about their abilities. Teachers should communicate to students about the growth mindset (that renowned Psychology professor Carol Dweck has propounded), in contrast to the fixed mindset (Principle 1).<br /><br />Teachers must build new knowledge on the foundation of prior knowledge (Principle 2). Stage theories of cognitive development (cognitive psychologists Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky’s theories, for example) are useful for teachers, although they ought to cautiously and judiciously apply these in teaching. Stages and ages do not necessarily go together (Principle 3). While aiming for factual and conceptual understanding, enabling students to see the big picture and the connections therein, teachers must promote applications of learnt concepts in real life (Principle 4). A variety of assignments used as practice will strengthen knowledge to be retrieved from long-term memory (Principle 5). But, practice should cease to become mechanical as in making students work the same kinds of problems or exercises or answers multiple times.<br /><br />Timely feedback from teachers is essential for learning (Principle 6). Students should become self-directed learners. To that effect, teachers act as facilitators to teach students strategies to monitor their own learning (Principle 7). With varied methods, activities, and opportunities, teachers can hone the creative abilities of students (Principle 8).<br /><br />Teaching is invariably associated with assessment as indicators of student-learning and feedback on teaching. The use of a variety of methods of formative and summative assessments in relation to teaching objectives are therefore necessary (Principle 18). Principle 19 states, “Students’ skills, knowledge, and abilities are best measured with assessment processes grounded in psychological science with well-defined standards for quality and fairness.” Not just measurement, teachers should interpret the data obtained from assessment appropriately and fairly (Principle 20). The science of learning reminds educators that teaching is not a random act. Effective teaching rests on research-based principles to result in learning. Teacher Education Programmes can prepare their preservice teachers to know, understand, and apply these principles both in microteaching as well as in teaching practice.<br /><br /><em>(The author is senior faculty at Indus Training and Research Institute, Bengaluru)</em></p>
<p>Teachers, on a daily basis, are concerned whether their teaching will lead to student-learning. And, over centuries, psychologists have attempted to unravel the mysteries of human learning. <br /><br />Notably, in the last two decades, advances in neuroscience have thrown more light on how people learn. All this is good news for teachers who can apply the fruits of the science of learning for effective classroom teaching in order to bring about a permanent change in knowledge and behaviour of their pupils, viz., learning.<br /><br />Around the beginning of this millennium, the National Research Council (NRC), an American nonprofit, put forth three basic principles for learning, which, in terms of teaching would mean<br /><br />To teach new material, teachers must activate prior knowledge of the students. It is important for teachers to make sure that the students build error-free concepts from their base knowledge, and thereby have a clear understanding of the learnt material. Anything short of this will result in students learning for the test rather than for comprehension.<br /><br />That teachers should not only develop robust factual knowledge in students, but also enable them to understand the facts within a broader conceptual framework, so that the latter can organise knowledge. When students are required to recall or apply facts, it is organised knowledge that helps them to do so easily.<br /><br /> Teachers ought to teach metacognitive skills to students. Students who develop abilities of metacognition become capable of setting goals for themselves and can monitor their own learning.<br /><br />In 2010, Susan A Ambrose, Michael W Bridges, Michele DiPietro, Marsha C Lovett and Marie K Norman proposed seven research-based principles for smart teaching, especially at the college level, on the basis of the science of learning. Similar to the NRC, they also wrote about the importance of prior knowledge, organised knowledge, mastery of facts for application, goals, and metacognition. In addition, they described factors such as student-motivation, targeted teacher-feedback, and class-climate, to foster learning.<br /><br />Four years later, Victor A Benassi, Catherine E Overson, and Christopher M Hakala drew out similar principles of learning. One principle that stands out when compared with the other aforementioned models is the inclusion of the concept of expertise reversal effect. A specific teaching method which will help a student with “low knowledge” will not be effective to the “more knowledgeable learner” and will likely bring negative consequences. This effect, however, can be overcome by differentiating instruction.<br /><br />After a complex process of identifying and translating principles of learning by a panel of experts, the American Psychological Association, in September 2015 presented 20 principles that pre K-12 teachers could use in teaching for effective learning. The first eight principles centre on the topics of cognition and learning, the next four principles are clustered below motivation, followed by three principles on social contexts which influence learning, two principles that focus on classroom management, and the last three which address assessment.<br /><br />At the outset, teachers need to know their learners, their families and their cultural background. This knowledge will immensely help teachers in creating culturally responsive lessons using culturally appropriate resources. Including the community in the curriculum increases the feeling of belonging in the class for the student. The classroom culture with a safe psychological climate in the class nurtures a community of learners. Principle 13 states, “Learning is situated within multiple social contexts.” Allowing healthy student-student and student-teacher relationships aids the socio-emotional development of children.<br /><br />Principle 15 addresses the emotional development and wellbeing of students as key to learning. Teachers are urged to teach students to express their feelings with appropriate vocabulary. If students are stressed, the teacher must step in to teach the child to relax with focused breathing. Fostering empathy and a sense of mutual understanding in students goes a long way in ensuring effective <br />learning. <br /><br />Enhancing the process<br /><br />Establishing clear behavioural expectations with rules, procedures, and routines, form effective classroom management strategies (Principle 16). Principle 17 discusses: “(a) setting and communicating high expectations, (b) consistently nurturing positive relationships, and (c) providing a high level of student support.” Teaching students to be intrinsically motivated and to focus on mastery rather than performance goals, and to set “short-term, specific, and moderately challenging goals” enhance student-motivation towards learning (Principles 9-12).<br /><br />Once the social, emotional, and motivational contexts as well as a managed classroom are in place, a conducive environment for learning will prevail. All students hold certain beliefs about their intellectual capabilities. Sometimes, learners may have misconceptions about their abilities. Teachers should communicate to students about the growth mindset (that renowned Psychology professor Carol Dweck has propounded), in contrast to the fixed mindset (Principle 1).<br /><br />Teachers must build new knowledge on the foundation of prior knowledge (Principle 2). Stage theories of cognitive development (cognitive psychologists Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky’s theories, for example) are useful for teachers, although they ought to cautiously and judiciously apply these in teaching. Stages and ages do not necessarily go together (Principle 3). While aiming for factual and conceptual understanding, enabling students to see the big picture and the connections therein, teachers must promote applications of learnt concepts in real life (Principle 4). A variety of assignments used as practice will strengthen knowledge to be retrieved from long-term memory (Principle 5). But, practice should cease to become mechanical as in making students work the same kinds of problems or exercises or answers multiple times.<br /><br />Timely feedback from teachers is essential for learning (Principle 6). Students should become self-directed learners. To that effect, teachers act as facilitators to teach students strategies to monitor their own learning (Principle 7). With varied methods, activities, and opportunities, teachers can hone the creative abilities of students (Principle 8).<br /><br />Teaching is invariably associated with assessment as indicators of student-learning and feedback on teaching. The use of a variety of methods of formative and summative assessments in relation to teaching objectives are therefore necessary (Principle 18). Principle 19 states, “Students’ skills, knowledge, and abilities are best measured with assessment processes grounded in psychological science with well-defined standards for quality and fairness.” Not just measurement, teachers should interpret the data obtained from assessment appropriately and fairly (Principle 20). The science of learning reminds educators that teaching is not a random act. Effective teaching rests on research-based principles to result in learning. Teacher Education Programmes can prepare their preservice teachers to know, understand, and apply these principles both in microteaching as well as in teaching practice.<br /><br /><em>(The author is senior faculty at Indus Training and Research Institute, Bengaluru)</em></p>