India’s urbanisation is a paradox

Cities in India continue to attract people from the countryside, with migration occurring not just from rural to urban areas but also between cities. The pull of large cities remains strong, and their spread into surrounding peripheries continues unabated. India now has over 9,000 statutory and census towns and approximately 23,000 villages with urban characteristics.

The World Bank estimates that as of 2023, 38 per cent people are living in urban India; however, some demographers suggest that India has already surpassed the 50 per cent urbanisation mark if urban characteristics are taken into consideration. Unlike the stark rural-urban divide seen in Western countries, India’s urbanisation presents a more seamless continuum.

Cities remain a magnet

India’s urbanisation is a paradox. Despite its exclusionary nature — marked by economic disparities, social exclusion, limited access to utilities, and political alienation — cities continue to attract large numbers of people.

A significant driver of this migration is rural distress, compelling individuals to seek livelihoods in urban centres. Yet, the retention of migrants in cities is limited, as was starkly evident during the Covid-19 pandemic when many returned to their villages.

The role of caste in this phenomenon cannot be overlooked. According to Chinmay Tumbe, a professor at IIM Ahmedabad, 50 per cent of those who remain in cities or establish permanent homes belong to upper-caste groups, particularly Brahmins.

Marginalised sections are more likely to return to their villages, underscoring the role of social hierarchies in shaping urban migration patterns.

Aspirations as a driving force

For many, cities represent the promise of liberation — from poverty, limited opportunities, and social stagnation, despite cities being one of the most inequitable spaces. The urban environment, cultural, and material, symbolises the chance to rewrite one's destiny.

Whether it is a farmer from rural Bihar seeking a stable income in Delhi, or a young graduate from a small town aspiring to join Bengaluru’s tech ecosystem, the magnetism of urban centres lies in their perceived ability to transform lives.

This aspirational pull persists despite harsh realities: substandard living conditions, precarious employment, and limited access to essential services. The hope of a better future — for oneself and one’s family — drives countless individuals to endure the challenges of urban life.

Stories of transformation

The stories of those who chase their dreams in cities are both inspiring and varied:

• A leader from a political party denied a ticket for the state legislature commented on the person who was able to manage it. He said: “ A few years ago he (who got the ticket) came to the city and was washing utensils in a dhaba and now he thinks that he can become an MLA.” The person lost, however was nominated as a vice chairperson of the housing board in the state of Himachal Pradesh. A dhaba utensil cleaner’s imagination of becoming a city leader is what drives this urban form.

• A migrant worker who came as domestic help from a remote village went on to complete his PhD in music and is now one of the finest folk singers in the region. This is another form of aspirational integration to the city framework.

• A daughter of a manual scavenger breaking the barriers of her caste went on to seek PhD admission in the country's most prestigious university, the Jawaharlal Nehru University in Delhi.

These stories exemplify the power of aspirations in driving migration and shaping lives. The cycle of hope fuels further migration, as individuals seek to carve out spaces for their identities and ambitions.

Cities as catalysts for growth

Urban areas provide platforms for individuals to transcend the limitations of their origins. The diversity of opportunities — from education and employment to cultural exposure — fuels aspirations across socioeconomic strata. Even in informal sectors, cities offer a chance to break free from the cyclical poverty of rural economies. For countless women, urbanisation also represents a pathway to independence and empowerment, as cities tend to provide more avenues for education and employment.

Paradox of exclusion

The journey of urban migrants is fraught with challenges. India’s urban infrastructure struggles to accommodate the growing influx, leading to a proliferation of slums and overburdened public services. Affordable housing remains scarce, and social alienation persists.

Yet, these obstacles seldom deter migrants. Their resilience highlights the enduring power of aspiration: the belief that hard work and persistence can overcome systemic barriers. This duality — exclusionary yet aspirational — defines India’s urbanization.

Toward inclusive urban growth

To truly harness the potential of urbanisation, India must adopt inclusive policies. Affordable and rental housing initiatives need expansion, as the Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana (PMAY) has proven insufficient. Public transportation systems must be upgraded to ensure equitable access to jobs and services for low-income workers.

Participatory governance is essential to designing cities that reflect the needs of their most vulnerable residents. Skill development programmes tailored to migrants and informal workers can help bridge the gap between aspirations and opportunities. Integration, rather than marginalisation, should be the guiding principle of urban planning.

The dream lives on

India’s urban story is one of resilience, driven by both necessity and dreams. Despite systemic exclusions, cities remain beacons of hope, offering the promise of transformation. By fostering inclusive, equitable, and sustainable urban growth, India can honour the aspirations of its people and ensure that their dreams are realised.

In doing so, the nation’s urban journey will not only reshape its physical landscape but also empower the millions who breathe life into its cities.

(Tikender Singh Panwar is former deputy mayor, Shimla, and member, Kerala Urban Commission.)

Disclaimer: The views expressed above are the author's own. They do not necessarily reflect the views of DH.